Warm Oceanic Pools Form in Areas of Rising, Unstable Air Where Much Latent Heat Is Released.

GRAVITY WAVES | Convectively Generated Gravity Waves

T.P. Lane , in Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences (Second Edition), 2015

Synopsis

Atmospheric convection is an important source of gravity waves. The gravity waves are caused by vertical displacements of stable air associated with convective elements, along with the diabatic heating and cooling within moist convection. Gravity waves can be generated by shallow or deep convection and the waves normally propagate vertically and horizontally away from their source. While in the troposphere, convective gravity waves can affect the stability and modify further convective development. In the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere the dissipation of convective gravity waves exerts a tendency on the mean flow and thereby contributes to the momentum budget of those layers.

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Response of the positive Indian Ocean dipole to climate change and impact on Indian summer monsoon rainfall

Wenju Cai , ... Benjamin Ng , in Indian Summer Monsoon Variability, 2021

21.4 Conclusions

Under greenhouse warming, a faster warming in the west and north of the equatorial Indian Ocean, relative to the eastern and southern, favors atmospheric convection in the west and convergence in the north, leading to an increased frequency of extreme pIOD events, whereas frequency of moderate pIOD events decreases. Although these changes are not forced by changes in ENSO under greenhouse warming, pIOD events concurrent with developing El Niño events often occur. Because a strong pIOD tends to induce an increase in ISMR whereas a strong El Niño tends to decrease ISMR; and because the IOD and the ISMR are both overly dominated by ENSO, we focused on the impact of pIOD events independent of El Niño. We find that greenhouse warming leads to a dramatic increase in the frequency of independent extreme pIOD, whereas the frequency of independent moderate pIOD decreases. Therefore, a higher frequency of extreme ISMR is projected even if the impact of the pIOD does not change, but we further show that the impact of future extreme pIOD intensifies, suggesting that the impact of future extreme pIOD on ISMR is likely to be stronger in the future. Thus, our study suggests that more extreme ISMR is likely to occur more frequently as a result of the response of pIOD to greenhouse warming. However, these models still suffer from many biases. The extent to which the projected changes are impacted by these biases awaits examination.

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The Indo-western Pacific Ocean capacitor effect

Yu Kosaka , ... Youichi Kamae , in Tropical and Extratropical Air-Sea Interactions, 2021

Abstract

This chapter reviews a recently developed idea of the Indo-western Pacific Ocean capacitor (IPOC) mode. Its positive phase features an anomalous low-level anticyclone anchored by weaker atmospheric convection over the tropical western North Pacific and extending to Indian subcontinent from boreal spring to summer. However, its key air-sea feedback transitions from the wind-evaporation-sea surface temperature feedback in the tropical western North Pacific to the interbasin feedback between the tropical Indian Ocean and the western Pacific, in accordance with seasonal evolution of background atmospheric circulation from boreal spring to summer. The IPOC mode exerts various impacts on South, Southeast, and East Asia through modulating occurrences of extremes such as heat waves, heavy rains, and tropical cyclones, as well as inducing seasonally evolving anomalies in summer. While the internal feedbacks suggest that the IPOC mode can arise from stochastic forcing, decaying El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the major driver of the IPOC mode. On the one hand, this ENSO influence enhances climate variability in the Asian monsoon regions. On the other hand, the ENSO-IPOC relay enables seasonal predictions of the climate variability in Asia.

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Simulating microscale thermal interactions using ENVI-met climate model

Ansar Khan , ... Yupeng Weng , in Urban Heat Island Modeling for Tropical Climates, 2021

6.2.3 Urban canopy

The building geometry of urban environment plays a crucial role in formation of UHI mechanism. The haphazard and unplanned building environment has an impact on incoming solar radiation, wind vector, and lower atmospheric convection ( Kusaka, Kondo, Kikegawa, & Kimura, 2001; Wang & Akbari, 2014). High-rise buildings and narrow urban canyons reduce the sky view factor (SVF) but increase the shading effect, which keeps urban surface cooler at daytime with increasing temperature at nighttime (Oke et al., 1991; La Roche & Berardi, 2014). An urban form with a building height (H) to street width (W) ratio of around 0.5 and a building density of around 0.3 could be endorsed as the measures to combat urban discomfort and UHI effects (McPherson, 1994).

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CONVECTION | Laboratory Models

H. J.S. Fernando , in Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, 2003

Introduction

Convection occurs when a fluid is heated or cooled either at its boundaries (e.g., daytime heating of ground or nighttime cooling of ocean surface) or in its interior (e.g., clouds). It is of profound importance in atmospheric and oceanic dynamics, particularly in transporting heat from one location to another. Convection may be driven solely by the buoyancy forces ("buoyant convection") or by a combination of buoyancy and mechanical (e.g., pressure gradient) forcing known as "forced convection." Convective phenomena abound in the atmosphere, spanning from planetary scale to small scales, with each scale playing an important role in maintaining delicate balances of heat, moisture, and momentum in the atmosphere conducive for life. Atmospheric convection is strongly coupled with oceanic processes though air–sea interaction, the combined action of which largely determines the climate on the Earth. Over the history of the Earth (and other planets), convective processes have undergone large changes that have affected the oceanic and atmospheric general circulation patterns. Further changes are expected in the future as a result of anthropogenic activities, which, some believe, could even be to some extent detrimental to human existence.

On the planetary scale, atmospheric convection is largely driven by the meridional imbalance of net solar radiation, contributed by a net radiative gain in low latitudes and a loss in polar regions as well as heat loss at upper levels by radiative cooling. In the absence of air circulation, such an imbalance would lead to a continuous increase in temperature at low latitudes and vice versa, but convection acts to prevent such changes by realizing meridional transfer of heat. For a nonrotating Earth, this would cause the rise of low-latitude warm air followed by sinking of cold air in high latitudes, forming a single meridional overturning cell (Hadley circulation). Because the Earth rotates, the circulation cell is greatly modified by Coriolis forces, the compounding effects of which make the Hadley circulation unstable. As a result, the planetary convection consists of three circulation cells, communicating with each other through a complex set of processes, as illustrated in Figure 1. The first (Hadley) cell is dominated by upper radiative cooling, with little influence of Earth's rotation, in much the same way as in the previously described Hadley circulation. The rising equatorial air reaches very high altitudes (deep convection), of the order of tens of kilometers, thus forming a belt of clouds (Intertropical Convergence Zone). Sinking air parcels in the Hadley cell feed the equatorial Trade Winds and drive the Ferrel cell, in which poleward-moving warm air encounters colder-high latitude air to form the polar front. Such a front can attain geostrophic equilibrium, with the cross-frontal pressure gradient balanced by the Coriolis forces of zonal flows (polar frontal jets). The warm and cold air tend to be separated by a sloping (frontal) surface, which becomes unstable (baroclinic instabilities) and degenerates into wavelike disturbances that allow the interchange of air parcels along slanted paths (known as the slantwise or slope convection). Without such slanting convection, the meridional flow would be symmetric and would spiral toward the poles, with inefficient heat transport capabilities. Slantwise convection allows fluid parcels to rise and fall along inclined paths, releasing the potential energy of the front in the form of kinetic energy of baroclinic waves. Symmetric spiraling convection can only transport about one-eighth of the heat flux that is needed to be transported meridionally, but slantwise convection with six baroclinic waves can accomplish this task.

In addition to the planetary-scale phenomena, convective processes of smaller scales are prevalent in the atmosphere: from synoptic-scale and meso-scale convection in the troposphere (powered by latent heat released during condensation in clouds) to boundary layer-scale convection driven by the heating at land and ocean surfaces. Convection over land may arise and be modified by nonuniform spatial heating, for example, due to isolated sources of widely different scales (e.g., thermals released from the ground, anvil clouds, microbursts, and urban heat islands). The nature of the terrain, whether it is complex or flat terrain, also affects convection. All of these types of convection are complex and often defy detailed theoretical treatment. To this end, laboratory models (mostly conducted with liquid working fluids) have played an important role in understanding atmospheric convection, and a very brief review of some relevant laboratory modeling efforts is presented here.

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Teleconnections

Vasubandhu Misra , in Regionalizing Global Climate Variations, 2020

6.2 The ENSO phenomenon

ENSO is the most widely known natural climate variation that has global impacts on seasonal variability. SEUS is one of the regions that shares this burden of climate variability forced by the ENSO variations (Ropelewski and Halpert, 1986, 1987; Kiladis and Diaz, 1989). ENSO in the most general terms is the variation of the SST in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that has a relatively broad timescale of 2–7 years. El Niño refers to the warm and La Niña to the cold phases of ENSO variability. This variability occurs naturally unlike climate change that is human induced or anthropogenically forced. The manifestation of this variation is not limited just to the ocean surface but extends well below the ocean surface to ocean thermocline and also elicits an atmospheric response that extends through the entire troposphere (Fig. 6.1).

The ENSO variability is a coupled ocean–atmosphere phenomenon. This notion of air–sea coupling is illustrated by the schematics in Fig. 6.1A, which shows that the SST gradient in the equatorial Pacific under neutral ENSO or normal conditions is also associated with a transverse atmospheric circulation in the longitude-height (or x-z) plane, which is more commonly called the Walker circulation, named after the discoverer Sir Gilbert Walker. The ascending part of this Walker circulation is over the warm western Pacific Ocean and the descending part of this circulation is over the cold eastern equatorial Pacific. The low-level winds of this transverse circulation in the equatorial Pacific Ocean are the easterly trade winds that are responding to the prevalent zonal SST gradient. The upper level westerlies close this transverse circulation.

In warm ENSO conditions (Fig. 6.1B), warmer SST anomalies appear in the eastern equatorial Pacific with associated displacement of the anomalous Walker circulation further eastward, with the ascent now centered more over the central Pacific Ocean. The anomalies shown in Fig. 6.1B and C are obtained by subtracting the mean state of warm and cold ENSO phases from the neutral conditions. The easterly trade winds become weaker during warm ENSO regime as the equatorial SST gradients become weaker. In association with this reduction in easterly trade winds, the upwelling of the cold waters in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean also becomes weaker with the anomalous tilt of thermocline nearly disappearing in the equatorial Pacific. This relative flattening of the thermocline raises the upper ocean heat content of the equatorial Pacific Ocean during warm ENSO events. It should be noted that, although very warm SST anomalies appear in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean (Fig. 6.1 B), the convection is largely confined to central Pacific in warm ENSO events. This is because the absolute values of SST in the equatorial eastern Pacific Ocean continue to be cold during El Niño conditions that are unable to sustain any atmospheric convection. Another takeaway point from Fig. 6.1B is that atmospheric convection in the warm western Pacific Ocean is sustained, albeit, slightly weaker than neutral ENSO conditions owing to the subsidence from the anomalous atmospheric convection that appears over central Pacific Ocean (Fig. 6.1B).

In contrast, during cold ENSO conditions (Fig. 6.1C), the warmer SSTs are pegged or confined to western Pacific Ocean with the associated ascent and atmospheric convection confined to the warm SST anomalies in the western Pacific Ocean. The easterly trade winds in the equatorial Pacific Ocean are stronger and the upwelling in the subsurface eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean is stronger than usual leading to colder SSTs and further accentuating the zonal gradients of SST.

The reason that ENSO variations are perceived as an air–sea coupled phenomenon is that the growth of the equatorial Pacific anomalies of the circulation both in the atmosphere and in the ocean including the growth of the SST anomalies at the ocean–atmosphere interface is aided and abetted by the air–sea interaction (which is the so-called Bjerknes feedback mechanism; Bjerknes, 1969). The upwelling of the cold water in the eastern equatorial Pacific is derived from the curl of the wind stress, which is fundamentally responding to the modulation of the trade winds in the tropical Pacific. Similarly, the modulation of the enthalpy (latent and sensible heat fluxes) as a result of the changes to SST and winds, in turn, feedback to atmospheric convection and fresh water (= precipitation–evaporation) flux into the equatorial Pacific Ocean. This process of air–sea interaction then impacts the transverse, Walker circulation including the surface wind stress and its implied curl, which affect the ocean heat content and the thermocline depth anomalies, completing the full feedback cycle between the upper ocean and the overlying atmosphere. The challenge is, however, that this feedback is nonlinear, asymmetric, and varies from one ENSO event to the another (Capatondi et al., 2014).

The southern oscillation in ENSO refers to the vacillation of the MSLP between Tahiti in south central Pacific and Darwin in Northern Australia (Fig. 6.2A). The southern oscillation is the atmospheric component of the ENSO variation and is objectively computed as the SOI given by:

(6.1) $SOI = \frac{p_{d} - {\bar{p}}_{d}}{σ}$

where p _d is the monthly mean MSLP gradient between Tahiti and Darwin and denoted by p _d =p _Tahiti –p _Darwin, σ is the standard deviation of p _d, and ${\bar{p}}_{d}$ is the climatological average of p _d. The SOI is also a measure of the strength of the trade winds. El Niño (or warm ENSO) events are characterized by negative SOI anomalies while La Niña (or cold ENSO) events are characterized by positive SOI anomalies. This signage of the SOI anomalies with sustained negative or positive SOI anomalies usually refers to warm or cold ENSO events, respectively. It is obvious from the eastward shift of the ascending cell of the Walker circulation and the associated reduction in the strength of the trade winds during warm ENSO events that tend to reduce MSLP over central Pacific while raising it slightly over western Pacific that it would yield negative SOI anomalies. Similarly, during La Niña events the ascending cell of the Walker circulation is situated in the far western Pacific Ocean resulting in consequent reduction of MSLP over Darwin and a corresponding rise over Tahiti where the descent occurs thus yielding positive SOI anomalies. The time series of the monthly SOI index is shown in Fig. 6.2B, which is used as one of the monitoring tools for studying the ENSO evolution.

Alternatively, there are several SST indices that are used, but one that is used by NOAA/NCEP/CPC is called the ONI. As per the definition of ONI, a warm or cold phase of ENSO is declared if five consecutive 3-month running mean of SST in the Niño3.4 region (Fig. 6.3A) anomalies surpasses a threshold of ±0.5°C. The time series of this ONI index, which is the running 3-month mean of the SST averaged over the Niño3.4 region, is shown in Fig. 6.3B. This ocean-based ONI index is a preferred monitoring tool, simply because the SOI index is comparatively more noisier (with higher variance) that sometimes can become difficult to discern from the ENSO signal, especially when the ENSO anomalies are weak. One may note that the Niño3.4 region is strategically located at the tip of the eastern equatorial Pacific cold tongue, where anomalous convection is set off during ENSO events. The other Niño regions in Fig. 6.3B have also become important regions to monitor the nuanced differences between the ENSO events that have recently been discovered. We will talk about intra-ENSO differences later in this chapter.

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Impact of atmosphere–ocean interactions on propagation and initiation of boreal winter and summer intraseasonal oscillations

Tim Li , Tianyi Wang , in Tropical and Extratropical Air-Sea Interactions, 2021

2.3.1 Role of air–sea interaction in affecting overall intraseasonal oscillation variance

One way to estimate how air–sea interaction affects the overall ISO variance is through idealized (e.g., coupled versus uncoupled) modeling studies. Using a hybrid atmosphere-ocean coupled model, Fu et al. (2003) showed that the coupled simulation significantly enhanced the intensity of the BSISO, comparing with the simulations with the atmosphere-only model (Fig. 2–11). The atmosphere-only model was unable to reproduce the same strength BSISO variability in the coupled simulation, even when it is forced by daily SST output from the coupled model (Fig. 2–11B). Given that these experiments produced nearly identical mean states, and the daily SST output from the coupled model contains the intraseasonal signal, the discrepancies shown in Fig. 2–11B arose primarily from the effect of air–sea interaction. It is thus speculated that the intraseasonal air–sea interaction could increase the overall ISO variability by about 30%.

An important feature in the coupled model is the near-quadrature phase relation between intraseasonal atmospheric convection and SST ( Fig. 2–12A). This differs markedly from the stand-alone atmospheric model in which the atmospheric convection is almost in phase with the underlying SST on the intraseasonal timescale (Fig. 2–12B). This is because in the coupled model there is a two-way interaction between the atmosphere and ocean, that is, on the one hand, a warm SSTA leads to an enhanced convection due to strengthened PBL convergence and surface evaporation, and on the other hand, the enhanced convection leads to the reduction of the SSTA due to the decrease of downward shortwave radiation. This is in contrast to the stand-alone atmospheric model where the SSTA always acts a forcing to the atmosphere. Further numerical model studies by Fu and Wang (2004a,b) with improved experimental designs confirmed the role of air–sea interaction in producing stronger BSISO variability and a more realistic convection–SST phase relation.

However, the conclusion above is model dependent. Unlike the significant reduction found in Fu et al. (2003), the simulated ISO variabilities in stand-alone atmospheric models could be comparable to those in coupled models (e.g., Zheng et al., 2004; Sharmila et al., 2013), or even greater (e.g., Pegion and Kirtman, 2008). Albeit large discrepancies existed in the simulated ISO intensity, all the models produced a near-quadrature phase relation between intraseasonal convection and SST in the coupled version and an in-phase relation in the atmosphere-only models.

The results above point out that there is no consensus on the role of air–sea interaction in affecting the overall ISO variance. The inconsistency among the models may attribute to the diversity of the atmosphere-only model performance in reproducing the observed ISO structure and propagation characteristics. For instance, Miyakawa et al. (2014) reported that the super high–resolution atmosphere-only model NICAM can produce a realistic MJO simulation, while a comparison made by Jiang et al. (2015) found that the CNRM model shows a great contrast in MJO propagation between coupled and uncoupled experiments. It is speculated that air–sea coupling may improve simulated ISOs only if an atmospheric model on its own can reproduce reasonable ISO signals (e.g., Zhang, 2005). Many state-of-art models still have difficulty in reproducing the eastward propagation of MJO (e.g., Lin et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2009; Sabeerali et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2014; Jiang et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017).

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Mass, Salt, and Heat Budgets and Wind Forcing

Lynne D. Talley , ... James H. Swift , in Descriptive Physical Oceanography (Sixth Edition), 2011

5.4.8 Dependence of the Latent and Sensible Heat Transfer Coefficients on Stability and Wind Speed

Latent and sensible heat transfers are computed using bulk formulae like Eqs. (5.15) and (5.17) using in situ observations. Values for the transfer coefficient for sensible heat for various air–sea temperature differences and different wind speeds are given in Table 5.2 (from Smith, 1988). The transfer coefficients in the two expressions, C_e and C_h , depend on whether the ocean is warmer or colder than the atmosphere, and whether the atmosphere is undergoing deep or vigorous convection. If the sea is warmer than the air above it, there will be a loss of heat from the sea because of the direction of the temperature gradient. However, larger scale atmospheric convection will increase the heat transfer away from the sea surface. Convection occurs because the air near the warm sea is heated, expands, and rises, carrying heat away rapidly. In the opposite case, where the sea is cooler than the air, convection does not occur. Therefore, for the same temperature difference between sea and air, the rate of heat loss when the sea is warmer is greater than the rate of gain when the sea is cooler.

TABLE 5.2. Some Values for the Sensible Heat Transfer Coefficient, C_h, as Functions of (T_s − T_a) and Wind Speed u

(T_s − T_a) (K)	Wind Speed u in m/sec
(T_s − T_a) (K)	2	5	10	20
−10	—	—	0.75	0.96
−3	—	0.62	0.93	0.99
−1	0.34	0.87	0.98	1.00
+1	1.30	1.10	1.02	1.00
+3	1.50	1.19	1.06	1.01
+10	1.87	1.35	1.13	1.03

Smith, 1988

For example, for (T_s − T_a) = −1 K, that is, for the sea cooler than the air (T_s < T_a), the stability in the air is positive. When the sea is warmer than the air, for example, (T_s − T_a) = +1 K, the air is unstable and heat conduction away from the sea is promoted, so the transfer coefficient is larger than 1. The blank areas in the table are for highly stable conditions (unusual) where Smith's analysis breaks down.

For the transfer coefficient for evaporation, Smith commented that measurements in open sea conditions are relatively rare, particularly for high wind speeds. After reviewing the available data, he recommended C_e = 1.20 C_h. That is, the physical process causing the transfer coefficient is similar for both evaporation and heat conduction.

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Satellite Remote Sensing of Sea Surface Temperatures

P.J. Minnett , in Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, 2001

El Niño

The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon has become a well-known feature of the coupled ocean–atmosphere system in terms of perturbations that have a direct influence on people's lives, mainly by altering the normal rainfall patterns causing draughts or deluges – both of which imperil lives, livestock, and property.

The normal SST distribution in the topical Pacific Ocean is a region of very warm surface waters in the west, with a zonal gradient to cooler water in the east; superimposed on this is a tongue of cool surface water extending westward along the Equator. This situation is associated with heavy rainfall over the western tropical Pacific, which is in turn associated with lower level atmospheric convergence and deep atmospheric convection. The atmospheric convergence and convection are part of the large-scale global circulation. The warm area of surface water, enclosed by the 28°C isotherm, is commonly referred to as the 'Warm Pool' and in the normal situation is confined to the western part of the tropical Pacific. During an El Niño event the warm surface water, and associated convection and rainfall, migrate eastward perturbing the global atmospheric circulation. El Niño events occur up to a few times per decade and are of very variable intensity. Detailed knowledge of the shape, area, position, and movement of the Warm Pool can be provided from satellite-derived SST to help study the phenomenon and forecast its consequences.

Figure 3 shows part of the global SST fields derived from the Pathfinder SST algorithm applied to AVHRR measurements. The tropical Pacific SST field in the normal situation (December 1993) is shown in the upper panel, while the lower panel shows the anomalous field during the El Niño event of 1997–98. This was one of the strongest El Niños on record, but also the best documented and forecast. Seasonal predictions of disturbed patterns of winds and rainfall had an unprecedented level of accuracy and provided improved useful forecasts for agriculture in many affected areas. Milder than usual hurricane and tropical cyclone seasons were successfully forecast, as were much wetter winters and severe coastal erosion on the Pacific coasts of the Americas.

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Technology, Instrumentation

Peter J. Minnett , in Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences (Third Edition), 2019

El Niño

The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon has become a well-known feature of the coupled ocean–atmosphere system in terms of perturbations that have a direct influence on people's lives, mainly by altering the normal rainfall patterns causing droughts or deluges—both of which imperil lives, livestock, and property (Philander, 1989).

The normal SST distribution in the tropical Pacific Ocean is a region of very warm surface waters in the west, with a zonal gradient to cooler water in the east; superimposed on this is a tongue of cool surface water extending westward along the Equator. This situation is associated with heavy rainfall over the western tropical Pacific, which is in turn associated with lower level atmospheric convergence and deep atmospheric convection. The atmospheric convergence and convection are part of the large-scale global circulation. The warm area of surface water, enclosed by the 28°C isotherm, is commonly referred to as the "Warm Pool" and in the normal situation is confined to the western part of the tropical Pacific. During an El Niño event the warm surface water, and associated convection and rainfall, migrate eastward perturbing the global atmospheric circulation. El Niño events occur up to a few times per decade and are of very variable intensity. Detailed knowledge of the shape, area, position, and movement of the Warm Pool can be provided from satellite-derived SST to help study the phenomenon and forecast its consequences.

Fig. 3 shows the tropical SSTs and the SST anomaly, that is the difference between the SST and a long-term average, for February 2, 2016. This was during the peak of the strong 2014–16 El Niño. Seasonal predictions of disturbed patterns of winds and rainfall provided improved forecasts for agriculture in many affected areas. There were extreme draughts across the western Pacific island nations, where there is usually abundant rain associated with clouds in the inter-tropical convergence zone, and in Australia in the spring of 2015. There was a milder than usual hurricane season in the Atlantic, but one of the strongest cyclone seasons in the Pacific with 16 cyclones in 2015. There was record coral bleaching in the Great Barrier Reef and elsewhere due to elevated sea temperatures (see below).

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Warm Oceanic Pools Form in Areas of Rising, Unstable Air Where Much Latent Heat Is Released.

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/atmospheric-convection

Warm Oceanic Pools Form in Areas of Rising, Unstable Air Where Much Latent Heat Is Released.

GRAVITY WAVES | Convectively Generated Gravity Waves

Synopsis

Response of the positive Indian Ocean dipole to climate change and impact on Indian summer monsoon rainfall

21.4 Conclusions

The Indo-western Pacific Ocean capacitor effect

Abstract

Simulating microscale thermal interactions using ENVI-met climate model

6.2.3 Urban canopy

CONVECTION | Laboratory Models

Introduction

Teleconnections

6.2 The ENSO phenomenon

Impact of atmosphere–ocean interactions on propagation and initiation of boreal winter and summer intraseasonal oscillations

2.3.1 Role of air–sea interaction in affecting overall intraseasonal oscillation variance

Mass, Salt, and Heat Budgets and Wind Forcing

5.4.8 Dependence of the Latent and Sensible Heat Transfer Coefficients on Stability and Wind Speed

Satellite Remote Sensing of Sea Surface Temperatures

El Niño

Technology, Instrumentation

El Niño

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